Description
Potentially Misidentified Species - Many species of tubificids occur in the Chesapeake Bay region, but 'this monospecific genus is quite unlike any other in the Tubificidae...' (Brinkhurst and Jamieson 1971).
Taxonomy
| Kingdom | Phylum | Class | Order | Family | Genus |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Animalia | Annelida | Oligochaeta | Haplotaxida | Tubificidae | Branchiura |
Synonyms
Invasion History
Chesapeake Bay Status
| First Record | Population | Range | Introduction | Residency | Source Region | Native Region | Vectors |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1957 | Established | Stable | Introduced | Regular Resident | North America | East Asia | Shipping(Ballast Water), Ornamental(Aquatic Plant) |
History of Spread
The oligochaete Branchiura sowerbyi was first described from mud taken from tanks housing Victoria regia, a giant South American water-lily, in Regent's Park, London (Beddard 1892), and later found in warm-water tanks in the botanical gardens at Hamburg, Germany, and other European cities. Subsequently, this worm was found living under natural conditions in a pond near Lahore, India (Stephenson 1913). Southeast Asia, where this species is one of the most common freshwater oligochaetes, is the likeliest region of origin (Aston 1968). B. sowerbyi is now distributed on all continents except Antarctica, and most abundant in warmer regions (Brinkhurst and Jamieson 1971; Timm 1979). Most of the movement of this worm has probably been with exotic water plants (Aston 1968; Timm 1979), but solid ballast and ballast water are potential means of introduction in estuarine waters (Cohen and Carlton 1995). Up to 1958, all records in Britain, and most from other parts of Europe, were in heated waters, but subsequently populations were found living at natural temperatures (Aston 1968).
The first collection of B. sowerbyi in North America was in Buckeye Lake, Fairfield County OH (Ohio River basin) in 1930 (Spencer 1932). Subsequently, it was found in the Great Lakes Basin (Kalamazoo River MI) in 1951 (Mills et al. 1993), 6 states in the Mississippi drainage by 1954 (Cole 1954), and in the San Joaquin River CA in 1952. It spread to 18 states by 1966 (Cohen and Carlton 1995). On the Atlantic coast, this worm is known from estuarine waters of the Delaware river NJ-PA (Wurtz and Roback 1955; Crumb 1977) and several Chesapeake tributaries, and the tidal Escambia River FL (Wurtz and Roback 1955). Given that oligochaetes are infequently identified beyond the class or family level, it is probably widespread in rivers, lakes, and estuaries.
Chesapeake records are listed below:
James River - Branchiura sowerbyi was among the less common infaunal taxa found from Hopewell to Windmill Point, 1971-1975, in the upper tidal fresh region (Diaz 1977; Diaz 1979; Diaz 1989: Diaz 1994), 7-125/m2 in 1971-72 (Diaz 1977); found in 7 of 39 samples near Windmill Point, 1975 (Diaz 1989).
Potomac River - Branchiura sowerbyi was found in benthic samples at Alexandria VA, in 1957 (Brinkhurst 1965), and in the tidal fresh Great Marsh, Mason Neck VA in 1992-93 (Zilstra 1994).
Upper Chesapeake Bay - Branchiura sowerbyi was collected in sampling off the eastern shore between Still Pond Creek and Tolchester Beach, Kent County MD in April and September 1979, found in only 2 of 54 samples in the survey (Pfitzenmeyer et al. 1980).
Delaware River - Branchiura sowerbyi was found in Brandywine Creek, near West Chester PA (Wurtz and Roback 1955), and in upper tidal fresh Delaware River between Trenton and Burlington NJ; but was not among the dominant taxa (Crumb 1977).
History References - Aston 1968; Beddard 1892; Brinkhurst 1965; Brinkhurst and Jamieson 1971; Cohen and Carlton 1995; Cole 1954; Crumb 1977; Diaz 1977; Diaz 1979; Diaz 1989; Diaz 1994; Lippson et al. 1979; Mills et al. 1993; Patrick 1994; Pfitzenmeyer et al. 1980; Spencer 1932; Stephenson 1913; Timm 1979; Wurtz and Roback 1955; Zylstra 1994
Invasion Comments
Invasion Status - Brinkhurst and Jamieson (1971) have raised some doubts about the introduced status of Branchiura sowerbyi: 'but the discovery of the species in a wide variety of localities in Europe, Africa, Australia, and America (where it is now known from Canada as well as states from the eastern, western, and southern limits of the United States and Brazil has made this story (of introduction and spread) less established ' (Aston 1968). Brinkhurst and Jamieson suggested that the apparent extremely rapid rate of spread in much of its range, including North America, suggests that this species had been merely overlooked in many locations. However, another freshwater invertebrate, the freshwater hydrozoan Craspedacusta sowerbyi, and many aquatic plants (e.g. Hydrilla verticillata, Myriophyllum spicatum) show similar patterns of spread. (See accounts of these species for details).
Ecology
Environmental Tolerances
| For Survival | For Reproduction | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Minimum | Maximum | Minimum | Maximum | |
| Temperature (ºC) | 4.0 | 35.0 | 10.0 | 32.5 |
| Salinity (‰) | 0.0 | 10.2 | 0.0 | |
| Oxygen | hypoxic | |||
| pH | 7.2000000000 | 8.5000000000 | ||
| Salinity Range | fresh-meso |
Age and Growth
| Male | Female | |
|---|---|---|
| Minimum Adult Size (mm) | 38.0 | 38.0 |
| Typical Adult Size (mm) | 111.5 | 111.5 |
| Maximum Adult Size (mm) | 185.0 | 185.0 |
| Maximum Longevity (yrs) | 2.0 | 2.0 |
| Typical Longevity (yrs | 1.0 | 1.0 |
Reproduction
| Start | Peak | End | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Reproductive Season | |||
| Typical Number of Young Per Reproductive Event |
|||
| Sexuality Mode(s) | |||
| Mode(s) of Asexual Reproduction |
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| Fertilization Type(s) | |||
| More than One Reproduction Event per Year |
|||
| Reproductive Startegy | |||
| Egg/Seed Form |
Impacts
Economic Impacts in Chesapeake Bay
Branchiura sowerbyi probably has no significant economic impacts in the Chesapeake Bay region, because of its low abundance.
Economic Impacts Outside of Chesapeake Bay
Branchiura sowerbyi, because of its rapid reproduction and large size, has been studied for potential use as a fish food in aquaculture. It can be reared on sewage sludge or decayed vegetables, but it requires more oxygen than Tubifex spp., which are more widely used for this purpose (Bonancina et al. 1994).
References- Bonancina et al. 1994
Ecological Impacts on Chesapeake Native Species
Impacts of the oligochaete Branchiura sowerbyi in the Chesapeake region may be limited by its low abundance (Diaz 1994; Pfitzenmeyer et al. 1980; Zylstra et al. 1994). Its scarcity may be offset to some extent by its large body size. The mean weight of indivdual B. sowerbyi from the James R. was 38.9 g, compared to 0.2-3.8 g for native species (Diaz 1979). However, specific effects of B. sowerbyi in the Chesapeake region have not been studied.
Bioturbation - Oligochaetes are the primary burrowers in freshwater sediments. Most freshwater species, including B. sowerbyi, are head-down feeders, ingesting sediments at depth, and defecating near the surface. This activity increases the depth of penetration of oxygen into the sediments, and promotes release of trapped nutrients and pollutants into the water column. Their activities in the sediments affect texture, organic content, and other features important to other sediment-dwelling fauna. (Brinkhurst and Gelder 1991; Diaz 1979). Because of their body size, high densities of Branchiura sowerbyi could have disproportionate effects.
Food/Prey - Oligochaetes are an important prey of fishes and predatory invertebrates. Their head-down posture makes them vulnerable to sublethal predation (tail-nipping) by fishes (Brinkhurst and Gelder 1991). Branchiura sowerbyi, because of its rapid reproduction, has been studied for potential use as a fish food in aquaculture (Bonancini et al. 1994). Native fishes likely to prey on Branchiura include catostomids (suckers, Catostomus commersoni, Carpiodes cyprinus, Moxostoma macrolepidotum), White Catfish and Bullheads (Amieurus spp.), cyprinids, and sunfishes (Centrarchidae) (Jenkins and Burkhead 1993).
References - Bonancini et al. 1994; Brinkhurst and Gelder 1991; Diaz 1979; Diaz 1994; Jenkins and Burkhead 1993; Pfitzenmeyer et al. 1980; Zylstra et al. 1994
Ecological Impacts on Other Chesapeake Non-Native Species
Impacts of the oligochaete Branchiura sowerbyi on introduced species in Chesapeake tributaries have not been studied. However, this worm is a likely prey for introduced benthivorous fishes such as Common Carp (Cyprinus carpio), catfishes (Ictalurus punctatus, I. furcatus, Pylodictis olivaris), and sunfishes (Lepomis macrochirus. L. cyanellus, etc.) (Jenkins and Burkhead 1993).
References - Jenkins and Burkhead 1993).
References
Aston, R. J. (1968) The effect of temperature on the life cycle, growth, and fecundity of Branchiura sowerbyi (Oligochaeta: Tubificidae), Journal of Zoology (London) 154: 29-40Beddard, Frank E. (1892) A new branchiate oligochaete (Branchiura sowerbyi), Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science 33: 325-342
Bonancina, C.; Pasteris, A.; Bonomi, G.; Marzuoli, D. (1994) Quantitative observations on the population ecology of Branchiura sowerbyi (Oligochaeta, Tubificidae), Hydrobiologia 278: 267-274
Brinkhurst, R. O.; Jamieson, B. G. M. (1971) Aquatic Oligochaeta of the World, In: (Eds.) . , Edinburgh. Pp.
Brinkhurst, Ralph O. (1965) Studies on the North American aquatic Oligochaeta II. Tubificidae., Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia 117: 117-172
Brinkhurst, Ralph O.; Gelder, Stuart R. (1991) Annelida: Oligochaeta and Branchiobdellida, In: Thorp, James H.//Covich, Alan P.(Eds.) Ecology and Classification of North American Freshwater Invertebrates. , San Diego. Pp. 401-435
Carrol, John H.; Dorris, Troy C. (1972) The life history of Branchiura sowerbyi, American Midland Naturalist 87: 413-422
Casellato, Sandra (1984) Life cycle and karyology of Branchiura sowerbyi, Hydrobiologia 115: 65-69
Cohen, Andrew N.; Carlton, James T. (1995) Nonindigenous aquatic species in a United States estuary: a case study of the biological invasions of the San Francisco Bay and Delta, , Washington DC, Silver Spring MD.. Pp.
Cole, Gerald A. (1954) An occurrence of Branchiura sowerbyi Beddard in Kentucky, Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science 15: 127-128
Crumb, Stephen E. (1977) Macrobenthos of the tidal Delaware River between Trenton and Burlington, New Jersey, Chesapeake Science 18: 253-265
Diaz, Robert J. (1977) The effects of pollution on benthic communities of the tidal James River, Virginia, , Charlottesville. Pp.
Diaz, Robert J. (1979) Ecology of tidal freshwater and estuarine Tubificidae (Oligochaeta)., In: Brinkhurst, Ralph O., and Cook, David G.(Eds.) Aquatic Oligochaete Biology. , New York. Pp. 310-330
Diaz, Robert J. (1989) Pollution and tidal benthic communities of the James River estuary, Hydrobiologia 180: 195-211
Diaz, Robert J. (1994) Response of tidal freshwater macrobenthos to sediment disturbance, Hydrobiologia 278: 201-212
Jenkins, Robert E.; Burkhead, Noel M. (1993) Freshwater fishes of Virginia., , Bethesda, MD. Pp.
Lippson, Alice J.; Haire, Michael S.; Holland, A. Frederick; Jacobs, Fred; Jensen, Jorgen; Moran-Johnson, R. Lynn; Polgar, Tibor T.; Richkus, William (1979) Environmental Atlas of the Potomac Estuary, , Baltimore, MD. Pp.
Mills, Edward L.; Leach, Joseph H.; Carlton, James T.; Secor, Carol L. (1993) Exotic species in the Great Lakes: a history of biotic crises and anthropogenic introductions., Journal of Great Lakes Research 19: 1-54
Patrick, Ruth (1994) Rivers of the United States, In: (Eds.) . , New York. Pp.
Pfitzenmeyer, Hayes T.; Johnston, Michael L.; Kennedy, Victor L. (1980) A monitor and study of the biological effects of dredging and overboard spoil disposal, C & D canal 1978 and 1979., UMCEES Ref. No. 79-201-CBL , Solomons MD. Pp.
Spencer, Warren P. (1932) A gilled oligochaete Branchiura sowerbyi new to America, Transactions of the American Microscopical Society 51: 267-272
Stephenson, J. (1913) On Branchiura sowerbyi Beddard, and on a new species of Limnodrilus with distinctive characters., Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh 48: 286-302
Timm, T. (1979) Distribution of aquatic oligochaetes., , New York. Pp. 55-77
Wurtz, Charles B.; Roback, Selwyn S. (1955) Invertebrate fauna of some Gulf coast rivers, Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia 107: 167-206
Zylstra, Stephen J. (1994) Community structure indicators for monitoring tidal freshwater marsh systems on the Potomac River, Virginia, , Fairfax, VA. Pp.